Hall Johnson

The Hall Johnson Songbook

The spiritual, an art form America by the slaves and their descendants, first appeared in the second half of the 19^th century. Their texts are based on Christian teachings and tend to focus on certain themes: avoidance of Satan, repentance, prayer, and oppression. Hall Johnson (1888-1970) was an American composer known for his spiritual compositions, taking what was once a simple genre of music and expanding its possibilities to achieve works of art comparable in compositional prowess to music written in Europe at this time.

This particular recording was made in 1969 by the Virginia State College Choir under the direction of Eugene Simpson. The authenticity of this recording is unquestionable due to Johnson still being alive and his close association with Simpson. These two men were some of the foremost authorities on accurate interpretations of spiritual material and there professional relationship allowed them to exchange their ideas freely. Of the thirteen a cappella songs on the record, most are original compositions, but some, like “Elijah Rock,” are intricate arrangements of traditional spirituals. Without a valid interpretation, it is possible that the true intention of the works could have been lost.

Johnson composed many of his spirituals during the 1920’s and 30’s. This was at a time when spirituals were declining in practice in black churches yet still maintaining popularity in performance venues. When listening to this recording, it is easy to take for granted what most spirituals sounded like at this time. Johnson, whose father was a minister and college president, received an excellent education which led to professional work as a violinist and violist. This education, which included time at the Julliard School, was still somewhat of a rarity at this time for a black man. With this vast knowledge of music theory, Johnson was able to take the spiritual to new heights by successfully juxtaposing the traditional spiritual style with his more advanced perception of harmony.

A cursory listen to this record might not warrant much appreciation for Johnson’s efforts. His spirituals employ a simple texture that allows for easy following by the audience. The refrains are often shorter than one phrase and repeated frequently. However, when one begins to delve deeper into Johnson’s harmonic underpinnings, it becomes increasingly apparent how much Johnson alters the usual I, IV, and V chords that are the basis of almost all hymns and spirituals. He also begins using extensions and alterations that go past the 7^th. (9^th, 11^th, 13^th, etc.) These alterations are always used with good taste and never just for the purpose of making something sound “different.” In Johnson’s style of music, as is the case with most Western music, the lowest note, sung by the basses, provides the harmonic reference point and is mostly the root of the chord.

Johnson approaches and leaves many of his vertical textures by half step. This is a practice that is also an integral part of jazz harmony. Other similarities with jazz music include the extensive use of the dominant seventh chord to frequently tonicize closely related key centers. Also, hints emerge of the stepwise bassline found in jazz.

As far as form is concerned, many of the spirituals contain sections of call and response between a soloist or small group and the rest of the choir. A great example of this occurs on the opening song “Cert’n’y Lord.” A baritone and bass soloist alternately ask the choir about being ready for Heaven, to which the choir enthusiastically responds “Cert’n’y Lord” after each question. Similar to these call and response portions are the repeated refrains of the songs. These repeated refrains are combined with alternating verses to create a sort of strophic form. In “Fix Me, Jesus,” the choir sings “Fix me, Jesus” as a refrain that then allows a soloist to sing a short interlude before the refrain is repeated again. Overall, Johnson effectively utilizes many different textures to achieve different sonorities and timbres that are simple in and of themselves, but when combined, create ingeniously contrasting sections

The texts are all derived from the Christian faith. Due to the history of blacks in America, the texts often talk of being freed from oppression. This is a concept that works on the level of avoiding sin but also as an inspiration to endure the racial challenges and suppression the blacks faced in America. In the vein of Charles Ives, Johnson occasionally interjects quotes into his works. In the somber tune “When I Was Sinkin’ Down,” Johnson uses a small portion of the hymn “What Wondrous Love Is This?” He seamlessly weaves the traditional American folk hymn into the song, without doubt a decision influenced by his upbringing as the son of a minister.

On the whole, I thoroughly enjoyed these spirituals. Johnson’s compositions bring a fresh air to the realm of choral music and the genre of the spiritual. For lack more adequate terms, his alterations and chord substitutions were “hip” and “swingin.’” Johnson’s harmony shows signs of the modern jazz alterations. And as for a place in the Canon, I think that these works most definitely would belong in some sort of more specific Canon, but not THE Canon. The quality of the music is extremely high, but canonic works often tend to be more refined in nature. These works are not significant enough in the broad spectrum of world music. I do believe, however, that their place in a choral Canon would be more than justified.

Hall Johnson expanded the spiritual traditions with his compositions and helped demonstrate that new harmonies could be introduced into the spiritual setting. His works are truly American and serve as a testament to the African-American music tradition.

Marion Bauer

Symphonic Suite for Strings and American Youth Symphony

In the early stages of the 20^th century, American composers were seen as second-rate musicians by the rest of the world in comparison to their European brethren. Furthermore, female American composers were hardly given a chance to gain a reputable status among their peers. So it is a small wonder that Marion Bauer (1882-1955) stands out as a leading figure of American music after World War I. Despite most of her fame stemming from the publication of her book Twentieth Century Music, her teaching tenures at New York University and The Julliard School, and her leadership in organizations such as the American Music Center, the American Music Guild, and the League of Composers, a study of Bauer’s works reveals a distinctive style steeped with lyricism, modern harmonies, and American song traditions.

Symphonic Suite for Strings (1940) is an emotionally wrenching work composed shortly after the death of some of Bauer’s Jewish family members at the hands of the Nazis. As the name implies, this work is for the strings found in an orchestra and rarely breaks out of a two- or three-part texture. The suite contains three movements in slow-slow-fast order. The first movement, “Prelude – Andante,” is a lyrical, somber expression that opens with a portion of harmonized two-part counterpoint. This section hints at the counterpoint of Bach, a reference that will be further realized in the third movement. Bauer utilizes sections of shifting tonalities separated by clear points of cadence. Another notable feature attributable to Bauer’s style is the use of rich textures and strong bass presence. The most striking portion of this movement is Bauer’s impeccable control of dissonance within her carefully crafted melodic lines. This movement, written in C minor, ends with an old compositional technique used in many hymns: the Picardy Third. Bauer does not seem to follow any kind of precedent concerning standard key relationships between the first and second movements. The second movement, “Interlude – Commodo,” is written in the key of F# minor, a tritone away from the original key of C minor. Bauer begins the movement in a similar manner as the first one. The violins play searching melodies that eventually develop into another short section of 2-part counterpoint. An abrupt cadence leads into a despairing portion that evokes a feeling of loneliness. Lower string parts play filler material at the end of main phrases by the upper parts to create a kinetic texture. The movement ends with a dissonant arpeggiated pattern. “Finale – Fugue” is the final movement and can be perceived as an endearing tribute to Bach. Bauer complies with the traditional understanding of the form, yet composes a piece offering intense counterpoint composed in a 20^th century style. Like many of Bach’s fugues, this movement sees different string parts entering in an imitative style. Bauer uses one main theme to unify this movement. When compared to the sections of the previous movements, this movement seems to have been almost entirely composed in a linear style. Bauer implies certain chords, but doesn’t use any detectable chord progressions. To end the work, Bauer uses a glorified V-I progression back to the home key of C minor

Like the Symphonic Suite for Strings, the American Youth Symphony (1943) contains three movements and many recurring stylistic features. The work was commissioned for an extended high school orchestra with wind instruments and piano; however, it is by no means an “easy” piece. Throughout this work, Bauer provides sections firmly rooted in American popular traditions. The first movement, “Andante Maestoso – Allegretto – Vivo,” is a sectionalized movement in G minor that begins with the statement of a theme in a march-like fashion. This is stated by the full ensemble and then restated alone by the piano, hinting at a concerto form. The piano, however, cannot be seen as a solo instrument accompanied by an ensemble because its part is hardly virtuosic and the piece does not follow concerto form. Bauer effectively uses the piano to supply poignant interactions with the rest of the ensemble. Following the march, the first movement continues in a spirited manner with the Allegretto and Vivo sections. Bauer continues her use of chromaticism and mixes in a deft appliance of rhythmic patterns. This movement closes with a restatement of the opening theme.

When listening to both the Symphonic Suite and the American Youth Symphony, a striking resemblance can be made among Bauer’s melodies. They are not necessarily restricted by the given key signature, tend to tastefully resolve dissonances, and possess the ability to evoke strong emotions. Bauer continues with a movement in C Major, “Andante ma non troppo,” composed in a peaceful triple feel. Harmonies are especially important in this movement because chords are held out for long durations. Traces of Impressionism abound with the use atmospheric harmonies and unclear key signatures. The ending portion of this movement calls to mind the common ii-V progression that is the cornerstone of jazz harmony.

The last movement, “Allegretto,” is in the key of G Major and contains a medley of American popular song forms. The first song type Bauer uses is that of an American dance known as the cakewalk. This dance form is very festive and employs clearly defined repeated sections. The next portion of this movement takes on the form of a minor blues. After a majestic swell, the entire work concludes with a Western hoedown. The piano plays a typical “boom-chuck” accompaniment that takes the piece to its grandiose finale. In this final movement, Bauer stylishly uses American popular styles without having them sound trite or tacky. Along with the traditional simple harmonies associated with these forms, Bauer incorporates lavish harmonic sequences that offer seamless transitions between sections.

I enjoyed both of these works immensely. Bauer’s lyric melodies and expertly controlled dissonances provide a fresh musical landscape that engages and challenges listeners to expand their sonic horizons. Bauer’s uncanny melodies offer a distinctive “sound” that can only be attributed to her. Bauer respectfully acknowledges musical forms of her predecessors, but also seeks to break the mold with formal ingenuities of her own. Highlighted in this paper is Bauer’s use of key signatures. Her movements are connected to each other, but often without the use of standard relatable key signatures. Bauer’s achievement of a distinctive “American” sound through her use of common American song forms suggests a stylistic relationship to Aaron Copland. Both of these composers were alive at the same time and used many techniques that seem to mirror each other.

The placement of these works in the Canon is debatable. I would propose that they be included in a more selective Canon. As is the case with the ever-increasing amount of quality music being published, certain works are incredible, but do not particularly stand out among other compositions. I believe this to be the case with Bauer, as her pieces are of excellent quality but do not approach the masterpiece level of other compositions by her contemporaries. The inclusion of these works in a female composer Canon would be more than deserved. Also, these works could be a part of a 20^th-century American composer’s Canon.

Bauer’s identifiable style and her controlled use of dissonance lend credence to her inclusion at the forefront of the evolving American compositional form of the first half of the 20^th-century. By combining American popular song forms with modernistic harmonies, Bauer established herself as a viable American composer.