Paulus

Paulus by Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy

Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, arguably the most naturally gifted composer of the Romantic era, was commissioned to write an oratorio commemorating the life of Paul in 1832. He finished this work nearly four years later in 1836. Upon first glance, similarities to such large-scale oratorios from the bygone era of Handel and Bach seem to pervade the entire piece. With further review, however, one begins to notice that those similarities are the result of the utmost reverence that Mendelssohn has for the traditions of his musical forefathers. The booming chorus sections that seem to overwhelm the listener’s senses are then seen as Mendelssohn’s tribute to the Baroque era He does manage to weave in his own modern style with the use of chromatic harmony as well as recitative and aria portions that mirror their respective counterparts in the opera tradition of Mendelssohn’s time.

This two-act oratorio recounts the New Testament story of Saint Paul and runs a little over two hours in length. The first section describes the life and martyrdom of St. Stephen and Saul’s conversion. The second act focuses on the missionary work of Saul, going by his newly-christened name of Paul, and his fellow prophet Barnabas. This second movement ends with Paul’s death at the hands of the Romans. The piece is written for chorus with four soloists: soprano, alto, tenor and bass. Each of the soloists depicts various characters and contributes to the narration of the story. Paul is portrayed by the bass throughout and the tenor sings the roles of Barnabas and Stephen while the soprano and alto soloists chime in during the narrative recitative sections The sections of this work include choral works, chorales, recitatives and arias.

The work opens with a lengthy thematic overture. Mendelssohn, known for his conducting prowess, demands the utmost attention of his audience for seven minutes in this stunning display of majesty that delivers many haunting and foreboding themes that appear later throughout the overture, acting as connecting material. Following the overture, Mendelssohn begins with a magnificent choral piece entitled “Herr! der du bist der Gott.” With this movement, Mendelssohn makes clear his attempt to bring back the overwhelming aspect of Baroque oratorios. This work introduces the sacred context of the rest of the oratorio. Whereas other oratorios might be confusing in regards to their purpose, Mendelssohn seems disinterested in making his story entertaining. He focuses on the events that actually occurred in the Bible in hopes of conveying their deeper spiritual meanings.

The mention of Mendelssohn’s overbearing religious perspective in this oratorio warrants further explanation. Mendelssohn grew up with a strong Jewish heritage. His grandfather was a prominent Jewish rabbi and scholar; however, Jews were not looked upon favorably during Mendelssohn’s time, so eventually his family adopted the name Bartholdy to replace their existing last name. Mendelssohn took both names, to the dismay of his father, although he remained a devoted Lutheran. This reasoning explains why this particular story of conversion has a special meaning for Mendelssohn.

Following a conventional homophonic chorale singing the praises of God, Mendelssohn launches into the story of Stephen. The soprano and bass act as narrators as they sing a duet telling of the people’s frustrations with Stephen. The chorus, playing the part of an angry mob, then voices these frustrations in an eerie choral tune, an effect achieved by percussive orchestration. Two typical traits are highlighted here. The first is Mendelssohn’s tendency to have a recitative section before each choral or aria section. This penchant continues for the duration of the work. The other typical trait is this characteristic orchestral accompaniment. Mendelssohn was a celebrated conductor and knew how to effectively compose a work for an orchestral setting. For example, a narrator tells how Stephen was stoned by his own people. During the stoning, the angry mob repeatedly calls for Stephen to be stoned. Their incessant chants are reminiscent of the mob cries Jesus faced before he was crucified. The question may be beginning to creep into the reader’s mind at this point of why the death of Stephen is depicted in an oratorio about Paul. The reasoning for this is not entirely clear, but the connection between the two is that Stephen’s martyrdom is the first time Saul is mentioned in the New Testament. By depicting Stephen’s death using a substantial amount of time, Mendelssohn shows the absolute determination of Saul in his quest to persecute all Christians. This device lends further credibility to Saul’s amazing conversion that is to come.

Recitative passages describe Saul’s actions on his journeys to persecute Christians. His destructive actions are catalogued in dramatic fashion by the tenor narrator with a sparse accompaniment from the orchestra. An aria follows that praises the glory and goodness of God. This leads us to the conversion of Saul. In a perhaps somewhat premature climax, the chorus plays the role of God speaking to Saul during his conversion. “Wachet auf! Ruft uns die Stimme,” a well-known chorale still sung in churches today, follows in what is an appropriate choice following Saul’s “wake-up call” that he received from God. The first act ends with Ananias christening the newly-named Paul as a Christian minister followed by a relatively generic choral piece proclaiming the glory of God.

This first act deserves some discussion before continuing to the oratorio’s second act. Several typical Mendelssohn features are present and many have been previously mentioned. Because this in an oratorio, certain aspects are necessary to propel the plot along. These are present in the recitative sections. The orchestra plays an almost equal role as the singers throughout the work. The mood, whether joyful, sad, or foreboding, can at once be determined by a cursory listen to the orchestration. During aria sections, for example, the orchestra often played a scant accompaniment of one or two melodic lines that perfectly complemented what the singer was singing. The orchestra plays a vital role in providing the dramatic accompaniment for the conversion scene. Another distinctive characteristic is Mendelssohn’s use of common themes, known as leitmotifs, to unify his work as a whole unit. These themes are heard at the onset of the oratorio in the overture and return at various times throughout the movement.

The second half of Mendelssohn’s work tells the story of Paul’s travels with Barnabas as an apostle of Christ and his ensuing martyrdom. Mendelssohn starts this portion of his oratorio with an energetic choral fugue. As was standard for these types of pieces, the choir begins by singing a homophonic portion and then quickly breaks into dense imitative polyphony. This initial movement, entitled “Der Erdkreis ist nun des Herrn,” assertively proclaims God’s presence on earth. The next few movements of the piece go by quickly with a relatively small amount of action occurring. A narrator describes Paul’s travels and the Jews’ initially welcoming reactions. Throughout this portion of the oratorio the chorus sings another chorale entitled “O Jesu Christe.” Mendelssohn introduces this widely sung chorale with an imitative polyphonic choral section. After this lull in the action, events begin to happen rapidly and Paul’s martyrdom becomes imminent. Paul delivers a dynamic message to an anxious public, who then begin to worship Paul in the choral movement “Die Götter sind den Menschen gleich geworden.” Literally translated, this means “The gods have become equal to man.” Paul, enraged with these views, unleashes a scathing rebuke saying that the people “don’t know what [they] are doing.” This group of overly devoted followers suddenly changes into a frenzied mob, expressing their frustration and overall disappointment. A soprano narrator then describes Paul’s persecution by the people and a simple air sung by the tenor makes note of Paul’s unwavering devotion to God until the time of his death. The oratorio ends with the entire ensemble singing “Nicht aber ihm allein.” Like most of the other choral pieces within Paulus, this movement features extensive imitative polyphony as well as sections of homophony.

When examining this work with respect to the common musical practices of the Romantic era and the times before, one can see that this oratorio follows the precedents of the oratorio style. The oratorio’s popularity was waning. The time of Handel has already passed, and with it the unparalleled master of the genre. The oratorio at the time of Mendelssohn was not necessarily considered a viable genre in which to compose a work. It was simply out of fashion and not popular enough with the general public. Mendelssohn was seeking to resurrect this genre with Paulus.

With Paulus, I believe Mendelssohn has created a masterpiece. Mendelssohn was know for churning out works at a furious pace and the completion of this oratorio took four years from the time it was commissioned to the day it was premiered. I only mention this fact to underscore the wondrous and unparalleled beauty and passion portrayed throughout the work. I find that the most characteristic portions of Paulus is the incredible beauty of the orchestra. Whether playing simple counterpoint or a booming accompaniment for the full chorus, Mendelssohn’s orchestration always seems to be absolutely perfect. During arias and recitatives, the accompaniment is fittingly scarce and seems to ideally convey Mendelssohn’s concepts.

I especially have come to admire Mendelssohn’s compositional style in this work. Having been composed in the earlier stages of the Romantic era, one might expect the work to not express the intentions of this era at its fullest. However, I do not think that this was Mendelssohn’s intentions. He sought to compose this new work in the style of a Handel oratorio. This explains the prominent chorus sections, a typical characteristic of the Handel style. Also similar to Handel, the chorus of Paulus depicts the mood and feelings of the text. Mendelssohn’s intent of composing in a bygone musical style is a continuation of his reverence for the older styles that he alone was responsible for resurrecting.

This work belongs in the Canon. It is a compositional masterpiece of a well known Biblical figure. I would assume that this work is not performed all that often due to the fact that Mendelssohn composed another oratorio entitled Elijah. Also, Paulus tends to be somewhat circuitous and longwinded. It is almost two hours long, and Paul’s character is not introduced until the end of the first act. The opening portions of the oratorio are instead used to tell the story of Stephen. This is also a fascinating tale, but the fact that it uses up at least thirty minutes of the oratorio suggests that Stephen’s martyrdom possibly warrants an oratorio of its own. Also, not enough time is devoted to Paul’s missionary work. There is literally one single song in which Paul delivers any sort of teaching to the people. I would like to have seen Paul speak out more and deliver his messages to the people. I believe these few reasons led to this work’s relative obscurity in relation to Mendelssohn’s Elijah; however, despite this apparent lack of public acclaim, Paulus still deserves recognition as a masterpiece and a tribute to the oratorios of Handel and Bach.

In summation, I believe that Mendelssohn depicted Paul’s biblical journey with fervor and passion. There is a large degree of incredible musical material throughout the work and the chorus scenes are wonderfully overwhelming. Overall though, the work suffers from little focus on Paul’s ministry and too much focus on the martyrdom of Stephen.

Concerto for Flute and Harp in C Major, K. 299

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is considered by many to be the undisputed greatest composer of all time. His works show incredible ingenuity, clarity, organization, and overall sheer brilliance. This particular concerto for an unconventional tandem of soloists again fully demonstrates the qualities that have elevated Mozart to his lofty musical status. This work was commissioned for this specific instrumentation by a wealthy duke; however, Mozart never received any of this promised money for the work. This work seems as if it were designed to showcase the harp, an instrument for which concertos were rarely composed.

Although Mozart has been known to either set precedent with his pieces or purposely deviate somewhat from the established musical forms of his day, this concerto very much follows the form of a Classical period concerto. There are three movements: Allegro, Andantino, and Rondo Allegro. These movements are arranged in the typical order of fast-slow-fast. This concerto lasts approximately thirty minutes, and Mozart seems to be filling every minute of that time with his wonderfully inventive melodies and almost no “filler” material.

The first movement begins with a majestic statement of the theme, played by the full orchestra (without the harp and flute) with the bulk of the melodic lines being played by the strings. This opening theme in the first exposition is a strict adherence to the established concerto form. The theme is founded on short thematic ideas and heavily relies on the use of contrasting dynamic markings. The harp and flute then close out this first ritornello section with a statement of the theme followed an episode that defines the intent of this work. Because of the nature of the two featured solo instruments in this work, the episodes take on the form of a flute playing with harp accompaniment and the harp playing with light plucked string accompaniment. The soloists’ exposition is extremely important; it is the composer’s opportunity to set the stage for the soloists to shine. Mozart at first allows each of the solo instruments to play a few solo lines with the other respective soloist playing more of an accompanying role. The harp and flute often intertwine their parts. There are times when the flute would play a sequence and the harp would take that particular sequence from the flute and continuo. As is typical of the Classical period, everything is neat and precise. The melodic lines played by the soloists are often derived from scales, arpeggios, and sequence patterns. The Alberti arpeggiated bass is also in use, played by either the strings of the orchestra or the harp accompanying the flute. This episode is then followed by another restatement of the theme by the full orchestra. After the theme, the piece develops further with a minor key section that incorporates frequent key modulations. Another episode from the soloists follows that is different from the first in that the soloists get a chance to show off their virtuosity. This is followed by another statement of the theme and the appearance of a secondary theme, played by the flute with harp accompaniment only. The second theme is further developed and varied and then leads into the final solo portion of the movement. This is the most virtuosic, cadenza-like section of the first movement. The movement closes out with a final re-statement of the initial ritornello

This kind of detailed analysis demonstrates the depth and organization with which Mozart composed this concerto. Although similar in-depth analysis could be done on the second two movements, a brief description of their key elements and stylistic features will suffice to avoid needless over-analysis and repetition. The second movement, Andantino, is a slower movement. The theme is stated at the beginning by the flute and then repeated by the harp. Within this section, there is a brief modulation to a minor key. This movement ends with unison flute and string lines accompanied by the harp. This ending is yet another example of the variations Mozart incorporates into his pieces.

The final Rondo movement begins with an opening pattern that incorporates many patterns and sequences. This movement also is heavy on Alberti bass accompaniment. This movement again follows a version of concerto form with an opening statement by the full orchestra followed by the duet of flute and harp only. Mozart also creates a nice effect by having the harp and flute concurrently play a major scale a third apart. This section also features the harp the most. The piece ends with a long flute trill followed by a standard ending that incorporates a repeated I chord.

I found this work to be thoroughly beautiful. There is a delicate and dainty quality about it, perhaps due in part to the relatively quiet timbre of the two solo instruments for which the movement was written. This delicacy might also be present because of the setting in which this work was intended to be performed, namely the duke’s private chamber. I find this work to be relaxing and easy to listen to. The lines flow quite beautifully and there is just enough harmonic deviations to keep the progressions interesting.

This piece should belong in the Canon if such decisions were based on quality of the composition alone. I do not think, however, that exquisite musicianship is the sole component that determines entrance into this exclusive Canon. Because the piece calls for a rare combination of solo instruments and a unique need for an extremely virtuosic harpist, I do not think it can be included in the Canon. The Canon is reserved for the most commonly performed and best-loved pieces. From a purely aesthetic view, Mozart has created a masterpiece with this concerto that demands a talented harpist. His melodies in this piece are soaring and endearing. This piece demonstrates and supports the notion that Mozart can rightfully be considered the greatest composer ever.

Make A Joyful Noise: Selections of American Psalmody

This recording documents choral singing of the earliest American-composed songs of praise, known as psalms. Beginning in 1770, this collection encapsulates the birth of America and the seventy years that follow. These songs, sung a cappella, greatly resemble the English choral tradition due to the almost direct link these American composers had to England. The strophic pieces incorporate secular sounds and melodies into the worship service, continuing the secularization of Protestant worship music. [which begins where? Tie this back into the history we covered in 351] Several of these songs lack an attributed composer, possibly due to the lingering concept of servitude to the church. Of the credited composers, William Billings and Supply Belcher stand out because of the quality and number of their compositions.

Most composers of these tunes hailed from New England and their compositional style strongly resembles choral practices today. The first song, “An Anthem of Praise,” was written by Supply Belcher and contains many of the typical traits of the American psalmody. Belcher, similarly to most American composers of this time, did not receive a formal music education. He only practiced music as a side job and never considered it to be his main profession. This psalm maintains a 4-part homorhythmic texture throughout, while occasionally moving to the relative minor. It employs sudden shifts in texture and feel. And, as is common with several selections on this record, it ends with a resounding “Amen” cadence. Belcher is again represented on this recording with his work “Heroism.” This piece exudes a rigid quality that suggests some sort of march, not unlike the battle marches of wartime America. Perhaps of more importance is the fact that Belcher elects to emphasize his text through the use of unrelenting repetition. The modern ear could possibly perceive a good portion of this as superfluous; however, as with all music of a different time period, one must take into account the purpose and performance venue of every given piece. These psalms were sung in churches and also, when possible, outside the church setting in private worship services. So the reoccurrence of text and melody served only to aid the congregation and non-musically trained public in the singing of these psalms.

William Billings heads the list as the most credited composer on this disc. A tanner by trade without a formal music education, it is safe to say that Billings was the first great American composer of choral music. The selections contained on this disc portray the breadth of his compositional prowess. One such selection is entitled “Chesterfield.” This piece, like many of the songs of this time, succeeds with a haunting melody. The arrangement is somewhat atypical with the tenors singing the melody and the sopranos providing a descant above everyone else. Billings displays his compositional techniques here with the use of pedal point, constantly moving inner voices, and the use of the extreme high and low range. Bearing these things in mind, one could reasonably assume that this piece, unlike many of the other simpler songs, was most likely intended to be sung by a choir of trained musicians with the congregation chiming in on the tune itself. Another Billings tune on this recording is “Washington.” This, again, is technically demanding. Billings goes to great lengths in this arrangement to follow each cadence with entrances containing four points of imitation.

An interesting parallel can be drawn here to the contemporary composers in Europe. The Classical era took place in the later part of the 18^th century, the time in which Billings composed much of his music. This being said, “Washington” in particular displays the newfound will to compose music in an organized manner. After these imitative entrances, Billings sets his text with a lilting quality. This is achieved with light articulation and polyphony of the highest quality. Each voice part sings a completely and almost unrelated vocal line.

Among the other fourteen pieces on this disc, a few more of these songs deserve mention due to stylistic features that categorize them as traditional American songs of praise. Billings does contribute one more song, “Richmond,” which employs shifting of key (minor to major) and feel (triple to duple) from the verses to the refrain. This concept of beginning an entirely new idea following a cadence can be seen in several other selections on this disc as well as the developing musical forms of the European Classical style. Almost all of these pieces were written in strophic form. A good example of this is “Middletown” by Amos Bull. This number contains three verses that use the same music. It is a light and joyful selection with a call-and-response concept at the beginning of each verse that concludes with the last two lines repeated for emphasis. This close adherence to form again typifies the Classical period.

“Newburgh,” by Amos Munson, begins with the singing of the original German text followed by a final verse sung in English. This piece, again, uses the concept of variation after each cadence point. In this case, each phrase alternates between less densely sung unison lines and sections of intense polyphony. Oliver Holden’s “Ode to Martyrdom” contains the aforementioned imitative entrances and also alternates between a duet and four part choral passages. This piece describes the glory of martyrdom.

Personally, I find these works to be inspired and inventive for the circumstances. I think it is interesting to consider the lack of training and exposure that many of these early American choral composers received. Their European counterparts would be able to attend musical events of high quality constantly while the American composers would not have such an opportunity. Bearing this in mind, I have come to appreciate the beauty and complexity with which writers, such as Billings, could compose.

As to the relationship between these pieces and the Canon, I do not believe that they necessarily would deserve such a lofty distinction. I interpret the inclusion of a piece into the musical Canon as a tribute to the timeless beauty and overall genius of said piece. Now, these pieces are hardly masterworks on the scale of pieces by Mozart and Haydn, but given the circumstances, these works do begin to show traces of a developing American musical tradition. The American religious landscape was beginning to solidify at this junction in time and these musical works by American composers helped redefine the independence of America from Great Britain, while at the same time maintaining various aspects derived from the European Classical styles.